Ancient Egypt and Israel

Ancient Egypt was one of the four great ancient civilizations. Like ancient India and ancient Babylon, its civilization did not continue uninterrupted into modern times. Ancient Egypt was located in the middle and lower reaches of the Nile River in northeast Africa, beginning around 3100 BC with the First Dynasty and ending in 343 BC when it was conquered again by Persia. Although remnants of Egyptian culture survived after that, by the beginning of the AD era, ancient Egypt had been thoroughly replaced by foreign civilizations, successively invaded and occupied by the Libyans, Cushites, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, the Ottoman Empire, France, and Britain.

Around 5150 years ago (approximately 3150 BC), Upper and Lower Egypt were unified, creating the world’s first large unified state, whose dynasties lasted and changed for about three thousand years until 30 BC when Rome conquered the 32nd dynasty (the Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ancient Egypt went through several periods: the Predynastic Period, Early Dynastic Period, Old Kingdom, First Intermediate Period, Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Late Period, with more than 30 dynasties ruling in succession.

The histories of ancient Egypt and Israel are closely intertwined. Around 1877 BC, during Egypt’s 12th Dynasty, Jacob (Israel) led his whole family to join his son Joseph, who had become vizier in Egypt. In 1446 BC, during the 18th Dynasty, Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. Among more than thirty dynasties, the 18th Dynasty lasted the longest, had the largest territory, and was the most prosperous. Pharaoh Thutmose III was the most outstanding politician and military leader of ancient Egypt and is regarded as the creator of the Egyptian Empire. God arranged for the Israelites to leave Egypt precisely during Thutmose III’s reign, partly as discipline for Egypt, and partly to show God’s people that they could escape Egypt’s control not by their own power but entirely by God’s doing—demonstrating that God is the Lord of all the earth and holds ultimate sovereignty over all nations. No matter how strong human governments seem—even an empire at its peak, like Egypt—they must still submit to God’s will.

In Hebrew, Egypt is Mitzraim (מִצְרַיִם), which literally means “land of narrowness” or “land of constraint.” The Hebrew word for suffering, narrowness, or distress is metzar (מֵצַר); its plural form is mitzraim. These two words share the same root, so to the Israelites, Egypt meant deep suffering and dire hardship. We see this reflected in various Chinese Bible translations, such as:

Lamentations 1:3

(CUNP) “Judah has gone into exile, suffering affliction and hard servitude; she dwells among the nations but finds no resting place; her pursuers have overtaken her in the narrow places.”

(CNV) “Judah has suffered greatly, driven into exile, living among the nations without rest; her pursuers caught up with her in distress.”

The Bible repeatedly highlights Egypt’s close connection with Israel, shown across many books.

During the Pentateuch

• Genesis

Genesis 12:10: Now there was a famine in the land, and Abram went down to Egypt to live there for a while because the famine was severe.

Genesis 26:2: The Lord appeared to Isaac and said, “Do not go down to Egypt; live in the land where I tell you to live.

Genesis 37:28: So when the Midianite merchants came by, his brothers pulled Joseph up out of the cistern and sold him for twenty shekels of silver to the Ishmaelites, who took him to Egypt.

Genesis 46:5-6: Then Jacob left Beersheba, and Israel’s sons took their father Jacob and their children and their wives in the carts that Pharaoh had sent to transport him. So Jacob and all his offspring went to Egypt, taking with them their livestock and the possessions they had acquired in Canaan.

• Exodus

At first, the Israelites lived peacefully in Egypt, but later their situation worsened—they were enslaved, forced into hard labor, and their male infants faced death. They cried out to God, who sent Moses and brought ten plagues on Egypt, leading millions of Israelites out of bondage.

• Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy

The Israelites wandered in the Sinai wilderness after leaving Egypt for forty years, during which time they received God’s laws, built the Tabernacle, and accepted the regulations for priests and sacrifices, making all necessary preparations for their later entry into the promised land of Canaan

During the Kingdom Period

• 1 Kings 4:21: And Solomon ruled over all the kingdoms from the Euphrates River to the land of the Philistines, as far as the border of Egypt. These countries brought tribute and were Solomon’s subjects all his life.
• 2 Kings 17:3-4: Shalmaneser king of Assyria came up to attack Hoshea, who had been Shalmaneser’s vassal and had paid him tribute. But the king of Assyria discovered that Hoshea was a traitor, for he had sent envoys to So king of Egypt, and he no longer paid tribute to the king of Assyria, as he had done year by year. Therefore Shalmaneser seized him and put him in prison.
• 2 Kings 18:20-21, 24：You say you have the counsel and the might for war—but you speak only empty words. On whom are you depending, that you rebel against me? 21Look, I know you are depending on Egypt, that splintered reed of a staff, which pierces the hand of anyone who leans on it! Such is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who depend on him.How can you repulse one officer of the least of my master’s officials, even though you are depending on Egypt for chariots and horsemen ?
• 2 Chronicles 12:2,9: Because they had been unfaithful to the Lord, Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem in the fifth year of King Rehoboam.When Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem, he carried off the treasures of the temple of the Lord and the treasures of the royal palace. He took everything, including the gold shields Solomon had made.
• 2 Chronicles 35:20: After all this, when Josiah had set the temple in order, Necho king of Egypt went up to fight at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Josiah marched out to meet him in battle.
• 2 Chronicles 36:1,3-4: And the people of the land took Jehoahaz son of Josiah and made him king in Jerusalem in place of his father.The king of Egypt dethroned him in Jerusalem and imposed on Judah a levy of a hundred talents of silver and a talent of gold. 4The king of Egypt made Eliakim, a brother of Jehoahaz, king over Judah and Jerusalem and changed Eliakim’s name to Jehoiakim. But Necho took Eliakim’s brother Jehoahaz and carried him off to Egypt.

In the Prophets

• Isaiah 30:1-3: “Woe to the obstinate children,” declares the Lord,“ to those who carry out plans that are not mine,forming an alliance, but not by my Spirit, heaping sin upon sin; who go down to Egyptwithout consulting me; who look for help to Pharaoh’s protection, to Egypt’s shade for refuge. But Pharaoh’s protection will be to your shame, Egypt’s shade will bring you disgrace.
• Ezekiel 29:6-7,16: Then all who live in Egypt will know that I am the Lord.“ ‘You have been a staff of reed for the people of Israel. When they grasped you with their hands, you splintered and you tore open their shoulders; when they leaned on you, you broke and their backs were wrenched. Egypt will no longer be a source of confidence for the people of Israel but will be a reminder of their sin in turning to her for help. Then they will know that I am the Sovereign Lord.’ ”
• Jeremiah 2:17-18: Have you not brought this on yourselves by for saking the Lord your God when he led you in the way? Now why go to Egypt to drink water from the Nile? And why go to Assyria to drink water from the Euphrates?
• Jeremiah 42:15-17: Then hear the word of the Lord, you remnant of Judah. This is what the Lord Almighty, the God of Israel, says: ‘If you are determined to go to Egypt and you do go to settle there, then the sword you fear will overtake you there, and the famine you dread will follow you into Egypt, and there you will die. Indeed, all who are determined to go to Egypt to settle there will die by the sword, famine and plague; not one of them will survive or escape the disaster I will bring on them.’

In the New Testament

• Hebrews 11:24-25,27: By faith Moses, when he had grown up, refused to be known as the son of Pharaoh’s daughter. He chose to be mistreated along with the people of God rather than to enjoy the fleeting pleasures of sin. By faith he left Egypt, not fearing the king’s anger; he persevered because he saw him who is invisible.
• Revelation 11:8: Their bodies will lie in the public square of the great city—which is figuratively called Sodom and Egypt—where also their Lord was crucified.

In total, Egypt is mentioned over 700 times in the Bible, across history, prophecy, and symbolism. Egypt was not only a neighboring nation but also carried deep political, religious, and symbolic meaning.

1. Oppression and slavery: Egypt symbolized Israel’s bondage, pointing to humanity’s enslavement to sin (Exodus 20:2; Galatians 4:24-25).

2. Worldly temptation: In the wilderness, Israelites longed for Egypt’s food (Numbers 11:5), representing dependence on material things.

3. Judgment and salvation: Egypt was judged (the ten plagues) yet also a stage for God’s mighty salvation (Isaiah 19:24-25).

• Isaiah 19:24-25: “In that day Israel will be third with Egypt and Assyria, a blessing in the midst of the earth, whom the LORD of hosts has blessed, saying, ‘Blessed be Egypt my people, and Assyria the work of my hands, and Israel my inheritance.’”

In Deuteronomy 17:16, God, through Moses, commanded His people: “The king must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the Lord has told you, ‘You are not to go back that way again.'” Unfortunately, they did not obey. 1 Kings 10:28-29a records: “Solomon’s horses were imported from Egypt and from Kue; the royal merchants purchased them from Kue at the current price. They imported a chariot from Egypt for 600 shekels of silver, and a horse for 150 shekels.” Not only this, but Solomon even married Pharaoh’s daughter: “Solomon made a treaty with Pharaoh king of Egypt and married his daughter. He brought her to the City of David” (1 Kings 3:1), laying the groundwork for Israel’s later decline.

From the mid-8th century BC (Assyria’s rise) to the 7th century BC (Babylon’s dominance), Judah and Israel faced constant threats and invasions. Despite prophetic warnings, Judah repeatedly sought alliances with Egypt, for several reasons:

1 Geopolitical threats:

The kingdom of Judah was situated at a critical crossroads in the ancient Near East, with powerful Mesopotamian empires like Assyria and Babylonia to its north, and Egypt bordering it to the south. This geographical location made it a focal point of contention among these great powers.

2 Desire to escape brutal overlords:

To escape the brutal Assyrians and the greedy Babylonians, Judah became a vassal state to the great powers, suffering immensely, and thus sought alliances to break free from their control.

3 Military and Economic Reliance:

Judah, with its own weak military, needed foreign aid when confronting powerful enemies. Egypt, though a traditional great power in decline, could still offer some military support. Judah acquired resources through Egypt’s trade routes, and Egypt’s grain and gold were attractive to Judah.

4 Internal political struggles and foreign policy within Judah during a period of intense pressure from northern powers (Assyria/Babylonia) often revolved around these factions:

 *Pro-Egypt Faction: Believed Egypt was a natural ally to resist the mighty northern powers (Assyria/Babylon).

 *Surrender Faction: Advocated for submission to Assyria/Babylon to avoid total destruction.

 *Judah’s Rulers: Often wavered between these two approaches.”

5 The Egyptian Factor

In the biblical narrative, particularly during the Neo-Babylonian Empire’s rise, Egypt’s role was driven by its own strategic interests. Egypt desired to maintain Judah as a buffer state against the formidable power of Assyria and later Babylonia.
However, Egypt’s military might was no longer at its peak. Egypt was repeatedly defeated by Babylon, and it relied heavily on Greek mercenaries to prevent the Babylonian army from invading Egypt proper. When Nebuchadnezzar’s advance was checked elsewhere, he viewed Judah as an object for his wrath. Judah ultimately found itself isolated and without allies.
In 586 BCE, Babylon completely destroyed Judah, the Temple was burned, and the elite were taken captive.

6 The Rulers’ Miscalculation and Judah’s Fate

 In the biblical narrative, the prophets of God, such as Isaiah and Jeremiah, vehemently opposed Judah’s alliance with Egypt. They declared such alliances a betrayal of Yahweh, advocating instead for reliance on God rather than secular powers (Isaiah 30-31; Jeremiah 42-44).
However, the immense political pressure often led Judah’s rulers to rely on human strength, directly contradicting God’s commands. This ultimately resulted in Judah’s destruction. This historical lesson is reiterated throughout many books of the Bible, emphasizing the stark contrast and divergent outcomes between dependence on human power and trust in God’s power.
Judah’s alignment with Egypt, though seemingly a desperate measure by a small nation caught between superpowers, was in fact an act of disobedience by not relying on God. This strategy, therefore, ultimately failed.

Conclusion:
Egypt in the Bible is both a historical reality and a spiritual symbol. It witnesses God’s deliverance (Exodus), exposes human reliance on worldly power (alliances with Egypt), and reveals God’s ultimate sovereignty over nations (prophecies). From Joseph to Jesus, Egypt remains an integral part of God’s plan. Once cursed, Egypt will ultimately become God’s people: “to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ” (Ephesians 1:10).