The Kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the Bible

The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a vast empire that rose to prominence after 900 BC, lasting from 911 BC to 609 BC. It was the most powerful world empire of its time, successfully annexing Babylonia, Egypt, Urartu, Armenia, and Elam, and dominating the Near East, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. The Assyrian Empire reached its peak in the 8th century BC. Several Assyrian kings are frequently mentioned in the Bible: Tiglath-pileser III, Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal.

1. Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kings 15:19 “Pul”; 2 Kings 15:29 “Tiglath-pileser”; 2 Chronicles 28:20 “Tiglath-pilneser” – New International Version)

Tiglath-pileser III (reigned 745–727 BC) was a great and ambitious Assyrian king and the first Assyrian king mentioned by name in the Bible. During his reign, the Assyrian political structure was reorganized, the empire’s territory expanded continuously, and its power reached its zenith. Scholars believe that Tiglath-pileser was the first Assyrian king to implement a policy of mass deportation, exiling residents from conquered regions and relocating people from other areas. It is said that in a single year, as many as 154,000 people were forcibly relocated from conquered territories. The purpose of this harsh policy was to break down national identity and weaken the cohesion of local populations, making it impossible for them to unite against Assyrian rule.

The Bible first mentions this king by the name “Pul” (2 Kings 15:19). 1 Chronicles 5:26 also states that God “stirred up the spirit of Pul king of Assyria, that is, Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria,” who carried away some of the tribes of Israel. It is generally believed that “Pul” was Tiglath-pileser’s birth name, which he used before ascending the throne and adopting the name “Tiglath-pileser.”

In the early years of his reign, Tiglath-pileser III seems to have focused on securing the southern, eastern, and northern borders of the empire. Soon after, Assyria began to expand westward, posing a significant threat to Syria and Palestine. In 734 BC, Tiglath-pileser III attacked the Philistines, and in 733 and 732 BC, he attacked Damascus. King Ahaz of Judah even sent a delegation to Tiglath-pileser, asking for help against Pekah and Rezin (2 Kings 16:7-9).

During the reign of King Menahem of northern Israel (c. 790–781 BC), Tiglath-pileser III invaded Palestine. To appease him, Menahem paid a tribute of “thirty-four thousand kilograms of silver” (a thousand talents; today worth about $6.606 million USD). This tribute temporarily satisfied Tiglath-pileser’s demands, and he withdrew his army for a time (2 Kings 15:19-20). Assyrian documents list the names of those who paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser, including Menahem, King Rezin of Damascus, and King Hiram of Tyre.

Later, during the reign of King Ahaz of Judah (761–746 BC), King Pekah of Israel and King Rezin of Damascus formed an alliance to attack Judah (2 Kings 16:5-6; Isaiah 7:1-2). Although the prophet Isaiah assured Ahaz that the two conspiring nations would soon be destroyed, King Ahaz sought help from Tiglath-pileser, giving him silver and gold (2 Kings 16:7-8; Isaiah 7:7-16; 8:9-13). An Assyrian inscription records the tribute offered by King Ahaz of Judah and other kings of the region as follows: “gold, silver, tin, iron, antimony, linen garments with colored trim, garments made of local dark purple wool… various precious goods, including produce from the sea and land, (fine) produce, the treasures of their kings, horses, mules (trained) for the yoke” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 282). The belligerent Assyrian king agreed to Ahaz’s request, led his army to invade Israel, captured several northern cities, and occupied regions such as Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali, taking many Israelites captive (2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26). The Assyrian army also attacked Damascus, captured the city, and killed King Rezin. King Ahaz of Judah traveled to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser III, possibly to express his gratitude or submission (2 Kings 16:9-12).

Isaiah had prophesied that the Lord would use the Assyrian king as a “rented razor” to “shave” the nation of Judah (Isaiah 7:17, 20). Whether this “rented razor” referred to Tiglath-pileser III, whom Ahaz bribed, the Bible clearly states that this king caused Ahaz great distress, and even his bribes were “of no help” (2 Chronicles 28:20-21). This event may have been a prelude to the Assyrian invasion of Judah, with Assyria attacking Judah like “the waters of a great river,” which would eventually “reach up to the neck.” The battles that occurred during Hezekiah’s time confirmed this (Isaiah 8:5-8; 2 Kings 18:13-14).

In an inscription, Tiglath-pileser III mentioned the northern kingdom of Israel, saying: “They overthrew King Pekah. I appointed Hoshea as king to rule over them. I collected ten talents of gold [$3.8535 million USD] and one thousand talents of silver [$6.606 million USD] from them and brought these tributes back to Assyria” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 284). The Assyrian king claimed to have helped Hoshea, who assassinated the previous monarch Pekah (c. 758 BC), to seize the throne of Israel (2 Kings 15:30).

After Tiglath-pileser III’s death, Shalmaneser V succeeded him.

2. Shalmaneser V (2 Kings 17:3)

Shalmaneser V succeeded Tiglath-pileser III as king. There are few secular historical documents about his reign. It seems that for five years, he was known as the king of Babylon, using the name Ululayu (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 272, footnote 4). Josephus, quoting the historian Menander, says that Shalmaneser V besieged Tyre (Antiquities of the Jews, Book 9, Sections 283-287, Chapter 14, Section 2). Other than that, the accounts of Shalmaneser primarily come from the Bible.

During the reign of King Hoshea of northern Israel (c. 758–740 BC), Shalmaneser V marched into Palestine, forcing Hoshea (732–723 BC) to submit to him and pay annual tribute (2 Kings 17:1-3). Afterward, in the seventh year of his reign, Hoshea stopped paying tribute, and the Assyrian king discovered that he was conspiring with King So of Egypt. Shalmaneser then imprisoned Hoshea and attacked Samaria, besieging the city for three years. In the ninth year of Hoshea’s reign, the city fell, and the Israelites were taken captive to a foreign land (2 Kings 17:4-6; 18:9-12; see also Hosea 7:11; Ezekiel 23:4-10). In 740 BC, Samaria fell, bringing the 257-year rule of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel to an end.

3. Sargon II (Isaiah 20:1)

Sargon II, the son of Shalmaneser V, succeeded him as king of Assyria, reigning from 722–705 BC. His name is only mentioned once here, but his campaigns in the Syro-Palestinian region are crucial for understanding the historical context of Isaiah’s prophecies.

In the first few months of Sargon’s reign, there was a serious internal rebellion. He granted certain privileges to the residents of the city of Assur, which eventually pacified the situation. In the spring of 720 BC, Sargon marched south to attack the Chaldean Marduk-apla-iddina II (known as Merodach-baladan) who had seized the throne of Babylon. They fought an inconclusive battle at Der. The Elamite and Arabian forces supporting Merodach-baladan were suppressed and could not advance. However, at this time, unrest broke out in the west, forcing Sargon to withdraw his army immediately and allowing Merodach-baladan to continue as king of Babylon (721–710 BC).

In the west, Yau-bi’di of Hamath led a coalition of Damascus, Arpad, Simyra, Samaria, and possibly Hatarikka in a revolt against Assyria. In late 720 BC, Sargon defeated the allied forces near Qarqar in northern Syria, forcing the participants to submit once again. He then destroyed Raphia, severing the connection between the rebel Hanun of Gaza and the Egyptian army, which Sargon then defeated.

During this period, the prophet Isaiah used the fate of Carchemish, Hamath, Arpad, Samaria, and Damascus as examples to warn the people of Judah not to participate in or rely on the military might of Egypt (Isaiah 10:9). When Sargon returned from the Egyptian border, he exiled most of the inhabitants of Samaria and rebuilt the city as the capital of a new Assyrian province. It took several years to resettle foreigners in Samaria, a process that seems to have continued until the time of Esarhaddon (Ezra 4:2).

4. Assyrian King Sennacherib (2 Kings 18; Isaiah 37; 2 Chronicles 32:21)

In 705 BC, Sennacherib (reigned 705–681 BC) succeeded his father, Sargon II, as king of Assyria. In 701 BC, after conquering Babylon and Elam, he launched a campaign against the Western kingdoms. Sennacherib’s reign was marked by wars in two main regions: the Syro-Palestinian area and Babylonia.

According to the Annals of Sennacherib, his massive Assyrian army marched south through Phoenicia directly to Philistia. The king of Sidon fled to Cyprus. Various places in Philistia, including Sidqa, Ekron, Beth-dagon, Joppa, Bene-berak, and Azor, were plundered by the Assyrians. At this time, the Egyptian army, which had marched to Eltekeh, was also defeated by the Assyrians. Sennacherib claimed that Sidon, Arvad, Byblos, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab, and Edom had all become vassal states and paid tribute to him.

Among the many vassal states of the Assyrian Empire, Babylon was the most rebellious. In Isaiah’s time, the Chaldean Merodach-baladan (Isaiah 39:1; 2 Kings 20:12 calls him “Berodach-baladan”), with the support of “Elam,” twice seized the throne of Babylon (721–710 BC and 705–702 BC). He also tried to ally with the southern kingdom of Judah, under King Hezekiah, to rebel against Assyria, posing a major threat. At the same time, Ashdod revolted against Assyria, expelled the puppet king installed by the Assyrians, and formed an anti-Assyrian alliance with Judah, Egypt, and Babylon.

King Sennacherib of Assyria responded to the challenges from Babylonia and Palestine. In 703 BC, he first led his army to Kish, near Babylon, where he defeated Merodach-baladan’s army and then captured the city of Babylon. Merodach-baladan was defeated and forced to accept the terms that allowed Assyrians free access to Babylon.

Following this, in 701 BC, Sennacherib marched west, plundering Phoenicia and Philistia. After capturing Timnah, Ekron, and Lachish, the Assyrians advanced along the Sorek and Elah valleys to the hill country of Judah, capturing 46 of its fortified cities and countless smaller towns. Seeing Sennacherib’s successive victories and his own precarious situation, Hezekiah offered tribute to Sennacherib at Lachish. However, Sennacherib later sent officials to Jerusalem, ordering King Hezekiah and its residents to surrender and accept deportation. At that time, Taharqa, the Kushite king of Egypt, led his army to Libnah. Sennacherib defeated the Egyptian army and then concentrated his forces to besiege Hezekiah in Jerusalem (2 Kings 19:15-19). But because of a strike from the Lord God, Sennacherib’s massive army of over 185,000 was annihilated, and his plan to attack Jerusalem failed.

Sennacherib’s troubles were not over. After returning to Assyria, he had to suppress another Babylonian rebellion led by Merodach-baladan. This time, Sennacherib appointed his son Ashur-nadin-shumi as king of Babylon. Six years later, Sennacherib launched a war against the Elamites, but the Elamites quickly retaliated, invading Mesopotamia, capturing Ashur-nadin-shumi, and installing their own king to rule Babylon. Over the next few years, the two armies fought fiercely for control of Babylon. Finally, in a fit of vengeance, Sennacherib leveled Babylon, and the city was massacred in 689 BC (The Old Testament Background Commentary).

In 681 BC, as Sennacherib was worshiping in the temple of his god Nisroch, his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer “killed him with the sword,” and they then fled to the land of Ararat (2 Chronicles 32:21; Isaiah 37:37-38). Sennacherib’s son Esarhaddon inherited the throne, and King Sennacherib exited the stage of history.

5. King Esarhaddon (2 Kings 19:37)

Esarhaddon recorded that he fought against the Cimmerians, who are believed to be descendants of Gomer (Genesis 10:2; Ezekiel 38:6). He also sacked the city of Sidon. In an inscription, he listed about twenty vassal kings, including King Manasseh of Judah. Before becoming king of Assyria, Esarhaddon served as governor of Babylon. In the early part of his reign, he began to rebuild Babylon (which his father Sennacherib had recently destroyed). The account in 2 Chronicles 33:10-13 states that King Manasseh of Judah was captured by “the commanders of the army of the king of Assyria” and taken to Babylon. Esarhaddon’s son, Ashurbanipal, also mentioned receiving tribute from Manasseh during his reign.

Esarhaddon’s most famous military campaign was the conquest of Egypt. He defeated the Egyptian army led by Taharqa (2 Kings 19:9 calls Taharqa “king of Ethiopia”) and captured the city of Memphis. This victory earned Esarhaddon an additional title: “King of the Kings of Egypt.” But after a time, the Egyptians rebelled. Esarhaddon set out on another campaign to suppress the rebellion but died en route in Haran. Esarhaddon had made arrangements during his lifetime to ensure a smooth transition of power. He had appointed his son Ashurbanipal as crown prince and another son, Shamash-shum-ukin, as king of Babylon. Thus, after Esarhaddon’s death, Ashurbanipal succeeded him as king of Assyria.

6. Ashurbanipal (Ezra 4:10)

Ashurbanipal (reigned 669 or 668–627 BC) is referred to in the Old Testament as “Asnapper” (Ezra 4:10). Ashurbanipal inherited his father’s vast empire, which stretched from northern Egypt to the Iranian plateau. He continued the policy of aggressive militarism. During his reign, the territory and militarism of Assyria reached its pre-collapse peak.

In 652 BC, Ashurbanipal’s brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, rebelled. He occupied Babylon, declared himself king, and received widespread support from the Chaldeans, Arameans, and Elamites who were under imperial rule. It took Ashurbanipal several years of warfare to suppress the rebellion. To punish the Elamites, he completely destroyed Susa, their main city, in 647 BC. This rebellion severely drained Assyria’s strength, and it lost its ability to expand, only being able to fight defensive wars against emerging powers (the Medes and the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom). After Ashurbanipal’s son, Ashur-etil-ilani (631–627 BC), inherited the throne, the political situation became unstable. The Scythians, Cimmerians, Median Kingdom, and ancient Persians repeatedly attacked the Assyrian Empire, and the Assyrian army was in continuous retreat.

In 614 BC, the Median army, taking advantage of the absence of the main Assyrian army, captured the ancient city of Assur. In 612 BC, a combined force of Chaldeans and Medes captured the imperial capital of Nineveh (“the lion’s lair”). The Assyrian king immolated himself in his palace, and the Assyrian Empire collapsed.