Darius I

Darius I (c. 550–485 BC), also known as Darius the Great, was the third monarch of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, reigning from 521 to 485 BC. He is referred to as “大利乌” (Dàlìwū) in Chinese translations of the Bible.

Records of Darius’s life primarily come from the Behistun Inscription, discovered in the Zagros Mountains of Kerman Province in southwestern Iran (named after the nearest village). The inscription is carved on a cliff 100 meters high, stretching 25 meters long, and features parallel texts in three languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. Although the inscription was commissioned by Darius, a comparison with accounts from ancient Greek historians Herodotus and Ctesias confirms the general accuracy of many key historical facts.

Darius I belonged to a distant branch of the royal family and had no direct claim to the throne. However, three years after King Cyrus’s successor Cambyses II launched his campaign in Egypt, unrest broke out in Persia. Cambyses II then died suddenly on his way back. Darius I seized the opportunity to quell the unrest and eliminate rivals to the throne, thus becoming king of Persia. After his accession, Darius I spent many years quelling rebellions across the empire, stabilizing the state.

According to the inscription, Darius possessed strong organizational skills. He improved the domestic administrative system, dividing the empire into approximately 20 satrapies (provinces), unifying currency and weights and measures, minting gold coins, and implementing tax reforms. He built roads, forming a comprehensive postal network, and opened sea routes from the Indus River to Egypt, as well as digging a canal from a branch of the Nile to the Red Sea to foster trade. He pursued a policy of religious freedom, respecting the diverse religious beliefs of the peoples under his rule, and allowed the Jews to resume the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem after it had been halted. The developed land and sea transportation system he established greatly enhanced communication among ancient civilizations, connecting the world more closely. Through a series of reforms, Darius I established a centralized bureaucratic administrative system, which objectively promoted economic and cultural exchange and development. He also reformed the military, building a powerful army, and ultimately forged an unprecedentedly vast empire.

As a monarch distinguished in both civil administration and military prowess, Darius was not the first unconquerable conqueror in history, but he was the first ruler with a global vision. The core of all his policies was to integrate the diverse cultures across vast lands into an effectively operating system. His assimilation of conquered civilizations was gradual yet powerful. While the political landscape of the Middle East has always been volatile, the legacy left by Darius has consistently found inheritors.

The high regard for Darius I stems from the Persian Empire’s impact on world history being more about its systems than its territorial expanse. The Persian Empire was the first great empire of global significance in human history. There was no prior experience in governing such a vast nation; Darius had to discover principles through his own efforts. By adhering to the principle of “great unification with small autonomy,” he enabled this empire to endure for a long time. The pioneering institutions he established profoundly influenced later world empires such as the Macedonian Empire (Alexander’s Empire), the Seleucid Empire (the Seleucid Persian dynasty), the Roman Empire, the Arab Empire, and the Ottoman Empire.